MacDonald's and Its Critics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

MacDonald's and Its Critics - Essay Example The company implemented various promotional planning in order to increase competency of the company (McDonald’s Restaurants Limited, 2008). The company is also known as the â€Å"Penny Cost† business. It usually means to control cost and on the other side, to increase sales. McDonald’s implementation of penny cost in their marketing strategies helped increasing the sales and profitability of the company. Presently, the company is dealing with 30,000 restaurants all over the world (McDonald’s, 2011). The main aim of this paper is to recognize the competitive advantages attained by McDonald’s through the implementation of effectives strategies related to marketing, human resource as well as other organizational aspects. The discussion of the paper further emphasize on the evaluation of sustainable growth, profitability and the rapid growth achieved by the company through its performance over the past years. The Key Strategic Decision of McDonaldâ€⠄¢s Establishment of Competitive Advantages To gain competitive advantages, McDonald’s has implemented various strategic decisions into practice. Competitive advantages are known as the reward gained over the competitors by contributing towards customer values and perceptions along with other fundamental aspects of business management. Competitive advantages tend to mark the performance level of a firm in a highly competitive market that can be gained through the generic strategies as proposed by Michael Porter, i.e. cost leadership, differentiation and focus (Porter, 1998). McDonald’s adopted the theory of expansion to offer customers with highly efficient services. Their main target was to attain customer satisfaction and also attain competency through expansion. McDonald’s executed various strategies in order to expand the business and attain sustainable growth through competitive advantages. In 1940s Ray Kroc started the business with milk shakes and few oth er items. In 1968, when Mr. Turner was the president of the company, he implemented changes in its organizational structure. Regional offices were established, in different countries and market regions. At that time quality control was not quite significant in the fast food industry, but McDonald’s implemented the quality control strategies which assist to improve the company’s brand image (Bartone & Wells, 2009). McDonald’s provided high quality services to its customers and planned the business structure in a systematic order and attractive manner. McDonald’s implemented strategic alliances which majorly intended differentiating the products, increasing the sales along with the profit. McDonald’s also introduced â€Å"happy meal† chart, which included new recipes. The execution of this procedure attracted new customers. The company also focused on increasing its sales with an addition of 1,200 restaurants in its worldwide chain (Bartone & Wells, 2009). All these factors, such as expansion of target market area, customer base and increase in the customer satisfaction along with increased sales rewarded the company with greater competitive advantages. Sustainable Growth McDonald’s implemented strategic plan such as differentiation, and quality control. This assisted the company to gain competency and long term profitability in the market. McDonald’s executed differentiation of the products, as these strategies were expected to help gaining higher profit along with increasing

The Evolution of Walking Upright Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

The Evolution of Walking Upright - Essay Example However, later scientific evidence clearly suggested that it may not be the case as evolution of walking upright has a history before the full human brain actually evolved. (Wheeler,62) It is critical to note that walking upright has not happened over the night and there were important physiological changes which occurred over the period of time. Available evidence suggests that there are important and critical differences between the physiology of the spines of apes and humans. It is this change especially in the physiology of spines of apes and humans which distinguishes them from each other. It was also this change which allowed humans to walk upright as compared to how apes walk. (Hunt) Physiology of Ape Scientific evidence suggests that early humans were either apes and evolved over the period of time to become humans or used some of the characteristics of apes. The early evidence that the humans actually used the ape like traits indicates that humans might have used four feet t o actually move from one place to another. However, as the time passed by, humans developed the ability to walk upright suggesting a change or transition in the physiology of apes to suit to the human needs. Some of the early evidence do suggests that the apes were bipedal in nature too however, their ability to walk on four feet was limited in nature. Apes cannot walk for longer distances on their two legs thus making it relatively impossible for them to use two legs for covering greater distances. This ability therefore was restricted due to the overall physiology of their spines and how it differed from that of the humans as evolution took place. Though the apes can still walk on two legs however, to become... This report approves that walking upright is considered as the primary and fundamental difference between humans and other animals. This tendency to walk upright however, has evolved over the period of time as humans are believes to be belonging to the same species as that of chimpanzees and gorillas. It is important to note that humans developed this tendency due to the changes in the physiology of their spines as spine of humans is relatively different from that of the spine of other animals. The human spine is relatively upright and supports its natural organs while at the same time supporting humans to walk easily. Human spine is joined with the head from the back whereas the spine of apes is joined from the back. The curve in the spines of apes allows them to carry weight however, restrict their movement. This essay makes a conclusion that one of the important theories of how humans developed the ability to walk upright is called Savannah theory. This theory suggests that humans developed this tendency because the climate change forced them to come down from trees. The global warming as well as cooling reduced the number of forests therefore humans have to come down the trees to survive. The author of the paper talks that this theory however, has been challenged by recent evidence which suggests that walking upright on two feet was made possible because of the difficulty faced by the humans to navigate the difficult terrain of East and South Africa. Further, walking upright conserves the energy thus allowing humans to walk longer distances with relative ease and less energy.

The percentage energy loss when a ball Bounces Essay Example for Free

The percentage energy loss when a ball Bounces Essay This investigation will be to determine the relationship between the length of a conductor and its resistance. The aim is to test a number of different lengths of nichrome wire to measure the resistance of each length. To ensure a safe procedure, a low voltage battery of 12 volts will be used, and the samples to be tested will be located on an insulating mat to prevent any shorts occurring. In addition a 2 Amp fuse will be placed in the circuit as a protective measure. For a fair test, all other parameters that can affect the resistance will be kept constant. These are the sample material, the diameter of the wire, and the temperature of the wire. To keep the temperature of the wire constant, it will be necessary to keep the current flowing in it constant. This is because the power dissipated in the conductor is I2R, so an increase of current by a factor of 2 will increase the power dissipated by a factor of 4, which can seriously affect the resistance. Thus only the length of the wire will be changed, and the corresponding voltage across it to give the same test current will be varied and measured. The resistance of the test sample will then be given by Ohms Law: Resistance = Voltage (Volts) ( Ohm) My prediction is that the resistance of the wire will be proportional to its length, all other variables being kept constant Equipment The equipment used for this investigation consisted of: 1) 12 volt power pack with on/off switch 2) Variable resistor (rheostat) 3) A 2 amp ammeter with digital readout to 0. 001 amp accuracy 4) A 20V voltmeter with digital readout to 0. 01V accuracy 5) Crocodile clips for connection of the test sample into the circuit and the voltmeter to the connecting crocodile clips. 6) Test samples consisting of varying lengths of 24 SWG The equipment and the circuit configuration used is shown in Fig 1. A 12-volt power pack will be connected in series with a switch, a 2-amp fuse, an Ammeter, a variable resistor and a sample test wire. A voltmeter will be connected across the test sample by crocodile clips. The test sample was connected into the circuit using crocodile clips. The voltmeter was connected across the sample into the rear of the crocodile clips. The plan will be to vary the sample length from 10 cms to 100 cms in 10 cm increments to provide a good range of results. Also to take readings of three samples for each length, and average the voltage readings to reduce possible errors. There are four factors that will affect the resistance of a wire. These are: 1. As the length of a wire increases, the resistance of the wire also increases. A variable resistor or rheostat is used to vary the current in a circuit. As the sliding contact moves, it varies the length of wire in the circuit. 2. As the cross-sectional area of a wire increases, the resistance of the wire decreases. An analogy of this is a water pipe, if the diameter of the water pipe is small the water flowing through will. Experience high resistance to the rate of flow. However if the diameter of the water pipe is large, the water flowing. Through it will experience low resistance to the rate of flow. 3. Different types of materials will affect the resistance in different ways. Materials such as copper, are very good conductors, and is used for connecting wires. Other materials such as nichrome (as used in the investigation) have a higher resistance than copper, and so is used in the heating elements of electric fires. 4. As the temperatures of a wire increases, the resistance of the wire increases as well. This is used in resistance thermometers, which use the fact that electricity does not flow so easily through a wire when the wire gets hot. Resistance is the opposition to the flow of charge. In metals, a sea of free electrons enabling it to conduct electricity surrounds a lattice of positive ions. The shorter the length of wire, the less energy is needed to move the electrons across the wire If the metal is attached to a power supply then the electrons flow through the metal but collide with atoms. Resistance is shown below in the diagram below: The resistance of a metal can be regarded as arising from the interaction, which occurs between the crystal lattice of the metal and the free electrons as they drift through it under an applied potential difference. This interaction is due mainly to collisions between defects in the crystal lattice (e. g. impurity atoms and dislocations) also play a part, especially at very low temperatures. Resistance is measured in Ohms (? ) Georg Ohm discovered that the current flowing through a metal wire is proportional to the potential difference across it (providing the temperature remains constant). Therefore: Resistance, R (? ) = Potential difference across the wire (V) I= V i R V= I x R R= V i I TABLE 1 RESULTS: Table 1 shows the data recorded and the resulting values for resistance for each length. These were those separate samples of the conductor tested for each length, and the average voltage was used to determine the resistance volume. Graph 1 plots the resistance against length for the range of test samples from 10cm to 100cm. The graph shows the data to be in very close proximity to a straight line, verifying the prediction to its length. From the best fit line drawn on the graph, the resistance per unit length of 24 SWG nichrome wire is found to be 0. 362 ohm/cm. When current passes down a wire, the wire gets heated. The moving electrons collide with ion and cause them to vibrate thus increasing the temperature ths is a waste of energy-when a current flows, heat is transferred to the air surroundingggs which explains why computers get hot in operation. However we can make use of the heating effect e. g. in fuses which are designed to melt when too much current flows e. g. in kettles. We can calculate the heat transferred per second using the following formula: Power = (Current)2 x Resistance (Watts) = (Amps)2 x (Ohms) (W) = (A)2 x (? ) Length (cm) Current (Amps) Resistance in Ohms (R=V/I) Power (Watts) From the table above we see that there is a relationship between the resistance and the current. We see that from the results table that the power (in Watts) is equivalent to the current (in amps) squared multiplied by the resistance of the wire. From the graph showing Power Vs Length, we can work out the heat transferred in one centimetre of nichrome wire. Power i Length =Thermal energy transferred (J) Length (cm). Current (Amps) Power (Watts)Â   From these results we can work out the coulombs of charge in each separate length of nichrome. This result will then allow us to calculate how many electrons had passed through the wire, which further allows us to calculate the time taken for the experiment to take place.

Al-Amanah Islamic Investment Bank Of The Philippines

Al-Amanah Islamic Investment Bank Of The Philippines Republic Act No. 6848, otherwise known as The Charter of the Al-Amanah Islamic Investment Bank of the Philippines outlines that the primary purpose of the Islamic bank is to promote and accelerate the socio-economic development of the Autonomous Region by performing banking, financing and investment operations and to establish and participate in agricultural, commercial and industrial ventures based on the Islamic concept of banking. In addition to allowing the bank to act as a universal bank capable of offering both conventional and Islamic banking products and services, the Sections No. 10 11 of the charter respectively provide incentives in the form of investor protection, and grant the bank the ability to accept grants and donations (Congress of the Philippines, 1989). Dimapunong (2006) provides background information and commentary on the rules and regulations governing the Al-Amanah Islamic Bank. A founding chairman of the bank, the author also wrote about the role of former senator Mamintal A. Tamanos role in the establishment of the original Philippine Amanah Bank, the precursor of the current Al-Amanah Islamic Investment Bank of the Philippines. A rare representative from Muslim Mindanao, the late senator was supposedly the first to envision a Muslim bank in the Philippines, at a time when modern Islamic banking was at its infancy. According to the author, the original PAB was not properly Shariah-compliant leading Ulama counsels to complain about the institution misleading the public. By 1988 it had been deemed a complete failure having already gone bankrupt (Dimapunong A. A.). Sandra Isnaji (2003) conducted a SWOT (Strength-Weakness-Opportunity-Threat) analysis of the Amanah Bank and prescribes a rehabilitation plan for the institution involving infusions of capital from the government in order to get rid of the banks debt and to invest in new infrastructure. Her paper was aimed at answering three questions with regard to the beleaguered banks status: (1) Where are we now? (2) Where do we want to be? and (3) How do we get there? To that extent, Isnaji looked at the state of Islamic banking industry as a whole, the state of the Philippine financial system, and the state of the Amanah bank itself. With regard to the Amanah Banks operations, Isnaji (2003) states that (at the time of writing) it operates on a two-window system in which it offers both Islamic and conventional financial products and services. And while the institution faced no competition from other Islamic banks, it faced stiff competition from the countrys conventional financial institutions, both formal and informal. With regard to the Philippine banking sector, the author used Porters Five Forces framework to analyze the ABs competition within it. The author findings are as follows: (1) With regard to the bargaining power of suppliers: the tight control of the Bangko Sentral affords it high bargaining power, to the advantage of state-owned banks such as the Amanah Bank; the bargaining power of multilateral and bilateral aid organizations(USTDA, WB, ADB, JBIC) is high due to their involvement with micro-finance and development banks; the large size and unorganized nature of the labor sector affords it little ba rgaining power; bargaining power among depositors is highly skewed towards the higher income deciles whos deposits account for 88.3% of the savings in banks, with the lower deciles having nor bargaining power. (2) With regard to the bargaining power of buyers, the higher income deciles belonging to the middle and upper classes resided and/or did business in the National Capital Region (NCR) and demand services such as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦electronic banking, payroll services, and bill payments.; The power portions of the population find it difficult to obtain financing from formal banks due to their situation, and thus do not have much bargaining power, but their sheer numbers offer a potentially large market. (3) With regard to the threat of new entrants, any new Islamic banks allowed by the BSP could actually benefit the Amanah Bank by providing much needed visibility for the beleaguered Philippine Islamic banking sector. (4) With regard to the threat of substitute, notable alternatives that customers may opt for are informal financial institutions, employers that provide loan programs, or complete abstinence from banking entirely. Another threat is the outflow of capital from the country. (5) With regard to rivalry among existing players, the tendency of banks to be large tends to lead them to avoid small borrowers and savers, as such the government has had to develop the banking system so as to include such institutions as thrift and rural banks which cater to the needs of small borrowers and savers who would otherwise resort to informal institutions. In order to counter the threat of oligopoly the government competes in the financial sector via the Development Bank of the Philippines (DBP) and the Land Bank of the Philippines (LBP). (Isnaji, 2003) As a requirement of the Development Bank of the Philippines (DBP) acquisition of the Al-Amanah Islamic Investment Bank of the Philippines (AAIIBP), the Monetary Board of the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP) required the DBP to submit a 5-year rehabilitation plan for the bank. The initial plan, submitted on 23 April 2008, was deemed inadequate by the BSP. As such a draft of the revised plan was submitted on 18 March 2009. The revised plan was divided into four parts: (1) a brief background elaborating on the institutions legal basis, purpose, and present situation, (2) a summary of its business plans, (3) details on the implementation of said business plans, (4) and five-year financial projections. (Panganiban, 2009) The revised rehabilitation plan of the Amanah Bank centers around 4Rs, specifically: Recapitalization via capital infusions from the DBP and domestic and foreign investors; this is aimed at covering the expenses of the banks rehabilitation Restoration of financial viability focused on à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦aggressive marketing efforts to introduce AAIIBPs new products and services, liquidation of non-performing assets and the sourcing of contingent fundsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Reorganization focused on building up institutional capacity, particularly with regard to Sharia compliance; involves organizational restructuring, relocation and refurbishing of bank offices, expansion and automation. Reforms institutionalization involves strengthening of corporate culture and governance, monitoring system, risk management and audit system, and review of product and operating manuals. Particular emphasis has been given to the recapitalization strategy which would provide the funds needed for the other three points of the rehabilitation. (Development Bank of the Philippines, March 2009) Islamic Banking Chong and Liu (2006) attempted to determine how different Islamic banking is from conventional banking by examining Islamic banking practice in Malaysia using the Engle-Granger error-correction methodology. In their study they find that despite being theoretically different, in practice Islamic banking in Malaysia is not very different from conventional banking. According to their study, only a negligible portion of Islamic bank financing in Malaysia is based on the profit-and-loss (PLS) sharing paradigm and that Islamic deposits are not interest-free, but are based on non-PLS modes that are permitted under Sharia law, but ignore the spirit of the usury prohibition. This parallels Islamic banking experience in other countries. The authors conclude that Islamic banking practices cannot differ too greatly from conventional banking practice due to stiff competition that makes interest-free Islamic deposits closely pegged to conventional deposits. This conclusion can have implications fo r the brand is Islamic banking, particularly with regard to its often touted non-interest-based character. However, it also has analytical and regulatory implications; the similarity of Islamic banking practices to conventional banking practices would simplify the task of both studying and regulating Islamic banking. The findings of this study mirror an earlier paper by Movassaghi and Zamans (2002). In it, they attempt to re-examine the concept of riba in light of Islamic jurisprudence. In that paper they compare Islamic banking practices with conventional banking practices in order to highlight that neither all conventional practices are usurious, nor are modern Islamic banking practices significantly different from those of conventional banks. They also assert that many differences between the profit/loss sharing paradigm of Islamic banking and conventional interest-based merely superficial. In addition to questions of practice, Chong and Lius study also asked the question of whether or not the growth of Islamic banking over the past several years was due to the comparative advantages of the Islamic banking paradigm, or to the Islamic resurgence that began in the 1960s. Based on their findings, the authors are inclined to adopt the latter view. This view is also compatible with the findings of a study cited by Isnaji (2003), done by the Meezan Bank of Pakistan which identified several key success factors in the experience of Islamic banks in other countries: (1) strong religious consciousness among the Muslim population, (2) support from the government in the form of financial infrastructure and favorable regulations, (3) promotion, (4) [increases] in individual wealth, and (5) a wide variety of financial products and services. Public Enterprises/Public Enterprise Reform Basu (2005) gives an overview of the background and concept of public enterprise, highlighting the particular experience of India in this matter. distinguishing it from the broader term public sector by adopting the definition adopted by the International Centre of Public Enterprises (ICPE): Any commercial, financial, industrial, agricultural or promotional undertaking owned by public authority, either wholly or through majority share holding which is engaged in the sale of goods and services and whose affairs are capable of being recorded in balance sheets and profit and loss accounts. Such undertakings may have diverse legal and corporate forms, such as departmental undertakings, public corporations, statutory agencies, established by Acts of Parliament or Joint Stock Companies registered under the Company Law. The author then goes on to elaborate these three categories. Basu further elaborates on the theory of public enterprises by elaborating on four types of economic activity based on the concept of remuneration as well as that of natural monopoly. (Basu, 2005) Basu highlights the equal importance of accountability and efficiency in the management of public enterprises, stating the important role of institutional arrangements in this matter. The author then elaborates on the creation of public enterprises with regard to government policy in terms of the strategies of nationalization or introduction of a new activity and states that most post-independence cases consisted of the latter. Basu emphasizes the idea that neither the state nor the market is immune to failure and that current emphasis should be on the idea of public-private synergy, and that attention should be put on both on public-private partnership and competition to achieve the objectives of efficiency and welfare. He then highlights the link between public finance and public enterprise, stating that shortsighted approaches of several developing countries including India to reduce fiscal deficit by selling public enterprises- which follow from inadequacies of public finance man agement could be disastrous in the long run (Basu, 2005). Stiglitz (2000) identifies two major categories in which public enterprises may systematically be more inefficient than private enterprises: organizational and individual. Under the former are sub-categories regarding organizational incentives, personnel restrictions, procurement restrictions, and budget restrictions. These pertain to public enterprises organizational rules and procedures which may hamper those enterprises efficiency and performance. The nature of public firms can mean that they may not necessarily need worry about incurring losses in their operations since any such losses may be covered by public funding. The bureaucratic nature of these enterprises may also entail strict procedures with regard to the hiring and firing of employees and the appropriation of needed materials, increasing transaction costs for both the demanding firm and possible suppliers (private forms and individuals). Lastly, there is the issue of budget restrictions due to governments having to all ocate limited financial resources among various agencies and projects. (Stiglitz, 2000) The latter category pertains to the behavior of individual bureaucrats under the incentive structure of public enterprises. Low wages and security of tenure may provide disincentives for bureaucrats to perform efficiently. Bureaucrats are also argued to be budget maximizers in that they seek to maximize the size of their bureaucracies by encouraging increased expenditures on their respective agencies. Stiglitz cites Niskanen with regard to principal-agent problems in bureaucracies wherein government bureaucrats act in their own interests and not necessarily in the interests of the citizens whom they are supposed to serve. (Stiglitz, 2000) Chang (2007) presents a discussion of the issue of state enterprise reform. Chang argues that theoretically there is no clear case with for or against state-owned enterprises (SOEs) by citing arguments for (natural monopoly, capital market failure, externalities, equity) and against (principal-agent problem, free-rider problem, soft budget restrains), the author also points out that large SOEs and large private sector firms often face similar (principal-agent) problems. This mirrors Stiglitzs statement that Principal-agent problems arise in all organization, whether public or private and are particularly acute in large organizations. In both private and public cases, managers often have large amounts of discretion allowing them to pursue their own interests. (Stiglitz, 2000) In citing the issues of public enterprises in comparison to private enterprises, many often assume away the agency problems of private firms, thus comparing idealized private firms with real-life SOEs, the former of which would obviously come out on top (Chang, 2007). Chang 92007) points out that privatization is not the only solution to the problems of many SOEs, and that many intermediate third way solutions exist. The author elaborates that privatization as an option has its costs and limitations and should only be taken on certain conditions, many of which are not met in reality leading to many failed attempts at privatization that cause more problems than they solve. As such, the third way options (organizational reform, increasing competition, political and administrative reforms) ought to be considered before privatization. (Chang, 2007) Rational Choice Theory/Institutional Economics Rational/Public Choice Theory Rational Choice Theory refers to those theories of the social sciences which utilize the analytical tools of neoclassical economics, particularly, the core assumption of rational (utility-maximizing) and self-interested individuals. (Hindmoor, 2006) Hindmoor (2002) states that rational choice theorists employ an instrumental conception of rationality in which actions are judged as being rational to the extent that they constitute the best way of achieving some goal. He identifies two conceptualizations of rationality: The first (the axiomatic approach) conceives a rational person as someone whos preference-ordering over bundles of goods and services is reflexive, complete, transitive and continuous. The second (the optimizing approach) conceives the rational person as one who possesses optimal beliefs and acts in optimal ways given those beliefs and desires. (Hindmoor, 2006) Hindmoor writes that rationality is a controversial assumption in political science, particularly in light of the concept of bounded rationality. As such, he says that such an assumption must be justified and looks at the two approaches in order to determine which is more defensible. Under the umbrella heading of rational choice theory can be found the sub-theories of public choice, which, in turn, constituted transplanting the general analytical framework of economics into political science. (Tullock, 2002) Tullocks primary contribution to rational/public choice theory is his theories on rent-seeking, which he defines as the use of resources for the purpose of obtaining rents for people where the rents themselves come from some activity that has negative social value. Tullock continues: The concept of rent seeking as popularly perceived refers to legal and illegal activities to obtain special privileges such as seeking monopoly status, special zoning, quantitative restrictions on imports, protective tariffs, bribes, threats, and smuggling. (Tullock, 2002) Indeed, rent-seeking has actually come to dominate the literature of rational choice theory. Hindmoor (2006) cites the plethora of studies done on various countries, on various topics to emphasize this point. He looks to three possible explanations for this: (1) the name-recognition of the term rent-seeking itself, (2) the adaptability and extendibility of Tullocks argument which à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦can be extended to cover the analysis of any and all special economic privilegesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, and (3) the fact that it offered a hostile theory of state, which could be used to counter welfare economists arguments for government intervention. On the second reason, Hindmoor supplements Tullocks original argument by pointing out that interest groups also spend resources to prevent rivals from obtaining rents and to secure their own and that governments may also practice rent-extraction. (Hindmoor, 2006) Tullock (2002) identifies several costs involved in rent seeking: The first being the actual cost of obtaining the special privilege. Of which the author provides the example of the costs of lobbying in Washington D.C. Greater costs are incurred from the distortion of the voting process, wherein public officials who are elected to pursue certain policies or projects often also pursue other less beneficial projects of which the true cost cannot be typically counted due to those politicians not disclosing the details of deals they have made. The greatest costs, however, are the indirect costs caused by rent seeking behavior. In particular, the involvement of intelligent and energetic people in an activity that contributes either nothing or negatively to society. The opportunity cost of such activities, he argues, far exceed their direct costs. (Tullock, 2002) Tullock (2002) argues that the development of rent seeking activities is influenced by many factors, in particular the structure and design of government. In general, he argues, any rule that complicates and makes the functioning of the government government decisionmaking process less smooth will lower the amount of rent seeking. He concludes his discussion on the topic by emphasizing that there are as of yet no good measures of the costs of rent-seeking (Tullock, 2002). Hindmoor (2006) cites Von Mises in defining bureaucracy as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦any organization which specialises in the supply of those services the value of which cannot be exchanged for money at a per-unit rate. Such organizations, Von Mises suggests, find themselves effectively exempted from the demands of economic calculation and are, as a result, usually inefficient. He also cites Tullock: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the crucial feature of bureaucracies is not simply that they are hierarchies, but pyramidal hierarchies with fewer people at the top than in the lower ranks. This leads to a principal-agent relationship, with all its problems of information asymmetry (Hindmoor, 2006). In his section of Public Choice, Tullock also discusses bureaucracy. He writes that: Bureaucrats are much like other people and, like people in general, are more interested in their own well-being than in the public interest. The problem is in designing institutions in such a way as to harness bureaucrats self-interest to serve the public interest (Tullock, 2002). The core problem with bureaucracy is encapsulated by Tullock in one paragraph: In most bureaucracies the executive whether in General Motors, the Department of State, or the Exchequer is in a position where only to a minor extent is his or her own interest involved. Bureaucrats will make many decisions that will have little or no direct effect on themselves and hence can be made with the best interests of General Motors or the American or the British people at heart. Unfortunately bureaucrats, in general, have only weak motives to consider these problems carefully, but they do have strong motives to improve their status in the bureaucracy, whether by income, power, or simply the ability to take leisure while sitting in plush offices. They are more likely to be more concerned with this second set of objectives than the first, although they may not put very much effort into it because not much effort is required (Tullock, 2002). Tullock then further draws parallels between public and private bureaucrats. He argues that both will attempt to maximize gains for their respective employers if it pays off for them. But in neither case does the institutional structure lead bureaucrats to maximizing the well-being of their superiors. He qualifies, though, that private corporations have a much easier time in pursing their goals efficiently than do governments. He cites three reasons for this: the comparatively simple objective of stockbrokers (profit maximization), the reasonably accurate methods of measuring the performance of corporate managers (bureaucrats) in the form of accounting, and the difference in the ownership of benefits from the efficient management of bureaucracies (private profit vs. public interest) (Tullock, 2002). Lastly, Tullock elaborates upon several proposals with regard to bureaucratic reform: decentralization, depriving bureaucrats of the vote, and downsizing the size of bureaucracy. He discusses how it is often in the interest of bureaucrats to increase the size of their departments , although in some cases downsizing does occur without the objection of senior bureaucrats due to such measures not affecting them aversely or even benefiting them by, for example, leading to more highly paid positions at the top while cutting down from below. Most intriguing is his characterization of bureaucratic behaviour as resembling that of people with hobbies, albeit with two major differences: it does not cost bureaucrats very much since they are predominantly using other peoples resources and that most bureaucrats honestly think that whatever it is they do is not for their benefit alone, but for the country or their bureau. (Tullock, 2002) This mirrors Niskanens theory on bureaucracy, wherein he asserts that bureaucrats find it in their interest to maximize their budgets and that they are often successful in doing so. Niskanen, himself defines bureaucracies as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦non-profit-making organization whose revenues derive from periodic grants (Hindmoor, 2006). Niskanen also à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦follows Downs in assuming that bureaucrats value a range of goods including power, monetary income, prestige and security. Yet he cuts through the complexities o Downs argument by suggesting that nearly all of these variables are positively related to the size of the bureaucrats budget (Hindmoor, 2006). Tullock (2002) elaborates goes on to the relationship between bureaucrats and two other major groups of political actors: politicians and pressure groups. Tullock focuses on the ability of bureaucrats to often lord over their superiors thanks to their security of tenure. Two bureaucratic tactics are discussed: the use of leaks to undermine or embarrass superiors, and the use of essential programs as proverbial shields in the fact of budget cuts. With regard to pressure groups, the collusion is the cited issue, wherein bureaus and interest groups work together to gain mutual benefits from government. (Tullock, 2002) With regard to this relationship Niskanen argues that the bureaucrats have two advantages over politicians which allow them to increase their budgets: (1) greater information on the costs involved in their bureaucracies provision of goods, and (2) the ability to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦make take-it-or-leave-it offers to their political patrons (Hindmoor, 2006). Politicians on the o ther hand are attributed four capacities: (1) the ability to select the bureaucracys overall output, (2) the ability to ensure that bureaucrats fulfill their promises in return for an agreed budget, (3) the ability to ensure that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the total benefits individuals derive from consuming whatever output it is that the bureaucracy provides are equal to or greater than the total costs of providing it (Hindmoor, 2006) and (4) the ability to ensure that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the marginal benefits of any output are not negative (Hindmoor, 2006). As Hindmoor points out, however, Niskanen has accepted the argument of Jean-Luc Migue and Gerard Belanger (1974) that bureaucrats do not so much maximize the size of their budget, but rather that of their discretionary budget, defined as the difference between their budget and the minimum costs of supplying their expected output. They argue that though this discretionary budget cannot be used by the bureaucrat for personal profit, it can be used to gain greater power, patronage, prestige, and so on (Hindmoor, 2006). Regardless of this distinction, however, the conclusion is still that the bureaucracies are inefficient because their budgets are too large. (Hindmoor, 2006) Hindmoor further critiques Niskanens argument by citing several works by multiple authors who point out that (1) politicians actually hold great power over bureaucrats, so much so that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦bureaucrats can be deterred from making excessive demandsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (2) politicians can trick bureaucrats into revealing information on minimal costs by à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦asking them how much output they would be willing to provide at various per unit prices. (3) constituents and interest-groups may raise alarms about with regard to ineffective bureaucracies, (4) administrative rules and standard operating procedures keep bureaucracies in line, and (5) that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Congressional Committees have the formal power to hire and fire senior bureaucrats, ring-fence particular investments and hold investigations and public-hearings into an agencys performance (Hindmoor, 2006). In his discussion, Tullock concludes by emphasizing that bureaucrats are not necessarily bad people, but that the institutional arrangement often frees them of the constraint of efficiently carrying out the tasks to which they have been assigned. The author then iterates that both large governments and large private corporations necessitate bureaucracies, and that such bureaucracies can be both conducive and/or obstructive to good government. (Tullock, 2002) Now, while rational choice theory certainly dominates discussion of government inefficiency Field (1979) argues that while it provides an easy framework for analysis, it is incapable of providing explanations. He argues that since rational choice models are as incapable of providing sufficiently restrictive predictions, which provide accounts which tell why a certain outcome was reached instead of another. He points to the inability of neoclassical economic analysis in explaining oligopolies, citing that Economists can analyze an existing cartel by pointing to the benefits which participating companies receive as the result of restricting output and raising prices. But economist can equally well analyze the absence of a cartel by pointing to the benefits individual members would obtain by violating such an agreement. (Field, 1979) Field goes on to critique the idea of explaining social outcomes based on the conception that they spring from economic forces. He mentions that while rational choice models have the comparative advantage when it comes to understanding outcomes which are caused by economic forces, they do not take into consideration the ways in which social forces affect the operation of markets. (Field, 1979) Field thus argues that the inherent limitations of rational choice/economic models in explaining systems of rules mean that they are no replacement for institutional economists qualitative approach, which holds historical understanding of the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦laws and customs organizing the process under investigationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ as essential. However, he does make the consideration that while rational choice models cannot satisfactorily explain institutions by themselves, they can help. (Field, 1979) Institutional Economics R.A. Gordon (1963) attempts to outline the characteristics of institutional economics in the form of several propositions: (1) Economic behavior is strongly conditioned by the institutional environment (in all its manifestation) within which economic activity takes place, and economic behavior in turn affects the institutional environment. (2) This process of mutual interaction is an evolutionary one. The environment changes, and as it does, so do the determinants of economic behavior. Hence the need for an evolutionary approach to economics. (3) In this evolutionary process of interaction, a key role is played by the (largely conflicting) conditions imposed by modern technology and by the pecuniary institutions of modern capitalism. (4) Economics is more concerned with conflict than with a harmonious order in which unconscious [cooperation] results from the free play of market forces. (5) Since conflict underlies so many economic relationships, and since these relationships are not immutable, there is room and need for social control of economic activity. (6) We need to learn all that we can from psychology, sociology, anthropology, and law if we are to understand why human beings act as they do in their economic roles. People are not maximizing automata reacting mechanically in an institutional vacuum. (7) Granted the preceding assumptions, much of orthodox economic theory is either wrong or irrelevant because it makes demonstrably false assumptions and does not ask the really important questions. A new, broader, evolutionary theory based on behavioral assumptions derived from the other social sciences and on detailed knowledge of the evolution and present characteristics of the institutional environment needs to be constructed. A wide variety of empirical studies must precede the attempt to construct such a broader, evolutionary, and more realistic corpus of theory (Gordon, 1963). Thorstein Veblen is commonlyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦regarded as the founding father or guiding spirit of American institutionalism. (Ayres, 1964) In Institutional Economics, Ayres argues that the central idea of Veblens works was a call for a completely different ontology of economics with a completely different conception of what constituted the economy. Whereas the conception of mainstream economics has been that the economic system is centered on the concept of the market and tied together by individuals self-interest. Instead, Ayres asserts that Veblen took on an anthropological conception of the economy. One where in it is the state of industrial arts that gives occasion to exchange, so the extent of the market must always be limited by the state of the industrial arts. This was the direct opposite of the thinking of mainstream economics at that point: that the various aspects of civilizations development could be attributed to market forces. (Ayres, 1964) Ayres puts Veb

am i? :: essays research papers

Socrates was a very simple man who did not have many material possessions and spoke in a plain, conversational manner. Socrates often engaged in conversations with people who claimed to be â€Å"experts†. He would question them on issues that, if they were the â€Å"experts† they claimed to be they would have the correct answer in seconds. Socrates often made these â€Å"experts† look quite foolish when he would prove them wrong in front of many other citizens. Plato’s Euthyphro is about one day when Socrates was on his way to the courthouse he ran into Euthyphro (a young Athenian priest). Socrates began a discussion with Euthyphro about the definition of holiness.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When asked about the definition of holiness, Euthyphro give Socrates three definitions and Socrates was able to prove all three of them to be wrong. The first was that holiness was the life that Euthyphro lived. Socrates disputed this definition stating that even though the life that Euthyphro lived was holy, it was not the definition of holiness (if it was the exact definition then only Euthyphro would be holy). Next Euthyphro says that holiness is found in what is dear to the gods. Socrates shoots this definition down because this definition is not distinct, the Greek gods were somewhat humanlike, what was holy to one god might be despised by the next. The third and finally definition Euthyphro offers Socrates is, â€Å"what is holy is loved by the gods†. However Euthyphro can’t answer weather something is holy because it is loved, or loved because it is holy, making this final definition unjust. All of Euthyphro’s definitions are examples o f holiness.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  During Plato’s Apology, Socrates reveals his definition of holiness to a courtroom full of jurors. Socrates explains that holiness is serving the gods by serving other using ones abilities no matter what the consequence: and to know what is right is to do what is right. Socrates definition is just and universal. It does not single anyone out to be more holy then anyone else and allows anyone to be holy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I feel that Socrates’ definition of holiness is very reasonable because it covers every aspect. am i? :: essays research papers Socrates was a very simple man who did not have many material possessions and spoke in a plain, conversational manner. Socrates often engaged in conversations with people who claimed to be â€Å"experts†. He would question them on issues that, if they were the â€Å"experts† they claimed to be they would have the correct answer in seconds. Socrates often made these â€Å"experts† look quite foolish when he would prove them wrong in front of many other citizens. Plato’s Euthyphro is about one day when Socrates was on his way to the courthouse he ran into Euthyphro (a young Athenian priest). Socrates began a discussion with Euthyphro about the definition of holiness.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When asked about the definition of holiness, Euthyphro give Socrates three definitions and Socrates was able to prove all three of them to be wrong. The first was that holiness was the life that Euthyphro lived. Socrates disputed this definition stating that even though the life that Euthyphro lived was holy, it was not the definition of holiness (if it was the exact definition then only Euthyphro would be holy). Next Euthyphro says that holiness is found in what is dear to the gods. Socrates shoots this definition down because this definition is not distinct, the Greek gods were somewhat humanlike, what was holy to one god might be despised by the next. The third and finally definition Euthyphro offers Socrates is, â€Å"what is holy is loved by the gods†. However Euthyphro can’t answer weather something is holy because it is loved, or loved because it is holy, making this final definition unjust. All of Euthyphro’s definitions are examples o f holiness.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  During Plato’s Apology, Socrates reveals his definition of holiness to a courtroom full of jurors. Socrates explains that holiness is serving the gods by serving other using ones abilities no matter what the consequence: and to know what is right is to do what is right. Socrates definition is just and universal. It does not single anyone out to be more holy then anyone else and allows anyone to be holy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I feel that Socrates’ definition of holiness is very reasonable because it covers every aspect.

The Subject of War in Poetry from Different Time Periods Essay

The Subject of War in Poetry from Different Time Periods Dulce e Decorum est by Wilfred Owen, Suicide In the Trenches by Siegfried Sassoon and The Charge of the Light Brigade by Alfred Tennyson. From studying the selection of texts (Poetry and Prose) what have you learnt about the different way writers from different periods deal with the subject of war. The three poems that I have chosen to talk about are â€Å"Dulce e Decorum est† by Wilfred Owen, â€Å"Suicide In the Trenches† by Siegfried Sassoon and â€Å"The Charge of the Light Brigade† by Alfred Tennyson. I will look at the three poems different opinions on war and how they compare and contrast from each other. I will also take into account the way the poets background may of affected there views. The poets come from a close time period but with different views â€Å" Suicide In The Trenches† and Dulce e Decorum est† are from the World War One era and â€Å"The Charge of The Light Brigade† form the Crimean War.. Alfred Tennyson, Siegfried Sassoon and Wilfred Owen all come from different backgrounds which alters the way they write, and the way they put there opinions across. Tennyson was a rich, public school student, proud of Britain’s conquests around the world but never fought himself, so had no first person experience of fighting. Owen contrasts to this as he didn’t have a lot of riches and was no more then a common soldier. Sassoon was an army officer but still was quit rich and never got the full taste of trench warfare during World War One. This shows straight away that the three writers were all brought up with different views and backgrounds which would definitely affect the way they write. The way that Tennyson writes, is the way a man who has never ... ... The Crimean War didn’t change history, but still Britain suffered a terrible loss of men. Tennyson and the rest of Britain was not used to this, so Tennyson wrote about the subject of war in a very positive way. Owen and Sassoon experienced the great war and saw the terrible losses first hand. They instead of showing how Britain was doing well, they wrote about how people were dying innocently. In the period Owen and Sassoon were writing in, Britain faced an uncertain future and Owens and Sassoon’s poem complement this aspect of life. They both try to get across the truth and reality in there poems. The World War One period made writers like Sassoon and Owen write in this style. Unlike Tennyson they put across all the negative aspects and stuck close to the point. Although Britain won World War One writers from this period wrote in a negative manner. The Subject of War in Poetry from Different Time Periods Essay The Subject of War in Poetry from Different Time Periods Dulce e Decorum est by Wilfred Owen, Suicide In the Trenches by Siegfried Sassoon and The Charge of the Light Brigade by Alfred Tennyson. From studying the selection of texts (Poetry and Prose) what have you learnt about the different way writers from different periods deal with the subject of war. The three poems that I have chosen to talk about are â€Å"Dulce e Decorum est† by Wilfred Owen, â€Å"Suicide In the Trenches† by Siegfried Sassoon and â€Å"The Charge of the Light Brigade† by Alfred Tennyson. I will look at the three poems different opinions on war and how they compare and contrast from each other. I will also take into account the way the poets background may of affected there views. The poets come from a close time period but with different views â€Å" Suicide In The Trenches† and Dulce e Decorum est† are from the World War One era and â€Å"The Charge of The Light Brigade† form the Crimean War.. Alfred Tennyson, Siegfried Sassoon and Wilfred Owen all come from different backgrounds which alters the way they write, and the way they put there opinions across. Tennyson was a rich, public school student, proud of Britain’s conquests around the world but never fought himself, so had no first person experience of fighting. Owen contrasts to this as he didn’t have a lot of riches and was no more then a common soldier. Sassoon was an army officer but still was quit rich and never got the full taste of trench warfare during World War One. This shows straight away that the three writers were all brought up with different views and backgrounds which would definitely affect the way they write. The way that Tennyson writes, is the way a man who has never ... ... The Crimean War didn’t change history, but still Britain suffered a terrible loss of men. Tennyson and the rest of Britain was not used to this, so Tennyson wrote about the subject of war in a very positive way. Owen and Sassoon experienced the great war and saw the terrible losses first hand. They instead of showing how Britain was doing well, they wrote about how people were dying innocently. In the period Owen and Sassoon were writing in, Britain faced an uncertain future and Owens and Sassoon’s poem complement this aspect of life. They both try to get across the truth and reality in there poems. The World War One period made writers like Sassoon and Owen write in this style. Unlike Tennyson they put across all the negative aspects and stuck close to the point. Although Britain won World War One writers from this period wrote in a negative manner.

Psychological Theories

Psychological Theory Psych525 Psychological Theory This paper examines how a person’s cultural ethnocentric perspective causes them to react to a person from another culture based on the behavior/social cognitive theory. For the purposes of description, this presentation will explore both Irish and Japanese ethnocentric perspectives and how they relate to one another using the behavior/social cognitive theory. Ethnocentricity Before continuing on to describe Irish and Japanese cultural interaction, there needs to be clear understanding of what is meant by ethnocentric perspectives. According to Segall, Dasen, Berry, & Poortinga (1999) an ethnocentric perspective is the belief that a person’s culture is the center of all. The other part of an ethnocentric perspective is that it promotes postive feelings of self while creating negative thought patterns about others (Segall et al, 1999). Behavior/Social Cognitive Theory This theory was built upon the theory that behavior is a learned response primarily learned through social environment (Cervone & Pervin, 2010). Social-cognitive theorists also believe that a person’s cognitive functions allow for growth beyond the initial environmental contributors (Cervone & Pervin, 2010). A person’s culture represents their primary social environment and therefore is the predominant contributor to their personality development. This cultural awareness, or ethnocentric perspective, provides a framework of thought that affects a person’s future development. Behavior Cognitive theory presents points such as; avoiding conflicting stimuli and attempting to meet equilibrium state by means of using their cognitive elements. Cognitive elements are elements such as; values, beliefs, knowledge, and attitudes (Awa & Nwuche, 2010). The social aspect of this theory delineates the thoughts that evaluation of such experiences occur in context with uses past experiences. In addition, the social aspect of the theory helps to explain how as social beings we work as â€Å"information processing machines† (Landau et al, 2010). By the use of this combination of theories, we are able to explain and evaluate in a deeper way two very distinctive cultures. The Irish and the Japanese cultures are two cultures so deeply rooted, their culture serves as a means for further understanding cultural dynamics. Irish Ethnocentric Perspective Ireland’s culture is wrapped around its loss of freedom and loss of self after colonization by England (Howard, 2009). Ireland is a predominately Catholic nation while the colonizing English were Protestant causing considerable tensions towards England (Howard, 2009). The Irish view their nation as one of culture and peace in comparison with England’s militarism (Howard, 2009). The colonization by England, as with many other nations, resulted in a loss of language (Howard, 2009). A movement that picked up speed during the 1970’s allowed Ireland to regain its language (Pinter, 2010). The Irish also view themselves as Celtic, a subset of â€Å"white† (Chan, 2006). This racial identity was important because the English viewed them as something less evolved or refined (Chan, 2006). Irish pride is seen in the fight to regain their religion, their language and their national identity and independence from the English (Pinter, 2010). Japanese Even though it could be argued that ethnocentric bias mostly affects those countries that are diversely populated, Japan can be an exception. Japan is known typically to be composed of a homogeneous population. Japanese culture is known to isolate themselves politically and socially from outsiders. â€Å"Gaijin† is a term usually used in Japan to describe outsiders or an out-group. Prior to the 1860’s, the Tokugawa Shoguns adopted a policy enforcing the seclusion of their people. This policy restricted the contact between the Japanese society and people from the outside (Neuliep et al, 2001). A century has passed by, and most of the Japanese culture still maintains that seclusion mentality towards out-groups. The Japanese culture is an example of how even the most developed county can posses such ethnocentric biases. The Japanese culture is not willing to assimilate out-groups into their society. This perception goes as far as to treating Koreans who were raised in Japan, and speak the Japanese language as â€Å"Gaijin† or outsiders. The Koreans raised in Japan must undergo the discrimination and the prejudice (Neuliep et al, 2001). Conclusion References Awa, H. O. , & Nwuche, C. A. (2010). Cognitive Consistency in Purchase Behaviour: Theoretical & Empirical Analyses. International Journal of Psychological Studies, 2(1), 44-54. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Cervone, D. , & Pervin, L. A. (2010). Personality: Theory and research (11th ed. ). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Chan, S. (2006). ‘Kiss My Royal Irish Ass. ‘ Contesting identity: Visual culture, gender, whiteness and diaspora. Journal of Gender Studies, 15(1), 1-17. doi:10. 1080/09589230500486850 Howard, B. (2009). In Sunlight and in Shadow. Sewanee Review, 117(4), 665. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Maclaran, P. , & Stevens, L. (2009). Magners man: Irish cider, representations of masculinity and the ‘Burning Celtic Soul. ’. Irish Marketing Review, 20(2), 77-88. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Neuliep, J. W. , Chaudoir, M. , & McCroskey, J. C. (2001). A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Ethnocentrism Among Japanese and United States College Students. Communication Research Reports, 18(2), 137-146. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Pinter, M. (2010). English or Irish? Cultural nationalist ideology in late 19th century Ireland. Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Brasov, Series IV: Philology & Cultural Studies, 3(52), 233-242. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Segall, M. H. , Dasen, P. R. , Berry, J. W. , & Poortinga, Y. H. (1999). Human behavior in global perspective: An introduction to cross-cultural psychology (2nd ed. ). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon/Pearson. Smyth, G. (2004). Ireland unplugged: the roots of Irish folk/trad. (Con)Fusion. Irish Studies Review, 12(1), 87-97. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Sturgeon, S. (2006). Maria Edgeworth, William Carleton, and the Battle for the Spirit of Ireland. Irish Studies Review, 14(4), 431-445. doi:10. 1080/09670880600984400